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Brunswick's goal is to build long-term partnerships with equipment buyers and help grow this line of business.

Paying special attention to the training of bowling center staff and meeting the wishes of investors to have highly qualified employees in all areas of their bowling alleys, Brunswick implements a number of special training programs in Russia and the CIS countries that have no analogues in the field of bowling center service support:

Since 2004, cycles of seminars have been held on a regular basis to improve the skills of managers and managers on the use of computer systems for managing bowling centers. During the two-day trainings, you will learn in detail about the theory and practice of setting up and using the system, the methodology for analyzing reports, and the rules for installing current updates. software Vector and other aspects of working with the software. Seminar participants take an active part in the discussion of the most pressing issues, and teachers share with them practical advice to control the work of the club staff, organization and conduct of bowling competitions of various levels, emerging problems and methods for solving them. At the moment, representatives of several dozen bowling centers in Russia and the CIS have become participants in the seminars (data as of the beginning of 2011).
The topics and dates of the next seminars of the cycle will be announced additionally. Follow company news.

For the first time in Russia, Brunswick organized a specialized "School for Advanced Training of Bowling Center Mechanics" on a permanent basis. An advanced three-day course of theoretical and practical exercises is so far the only advanced training institute in Russia for bowling mechanics with work experience. An exam is held after the completion of the course.

The School program includes the following questions:

1. Safety precautions when working with bowling equipment

2. General arrangement of bowling equipment

3. Maintenance

Seminars are held on a regular basis several times a year in the cities of Russia and Ukraine. Follow company news.

As the name implies, the school is designed for the chief mechanics of bowling centers and is held on an annual basis. This school is held in a discussion format. During the seminar, new developments of Brunswick engineers are discussed, participants share their experience in operating equipment, talk about problems in personnel management, and jointly develop new solutions.

The next school will be announced later. Follow company news.

The school is intended for mechanics who care for tracks and prepare tracks for competitions.
The school curriculum includes questions technical support competitions and the correct preparation of the tracks with Brunswick track maintenance machines.
Training on how to apply oil and how to use it latest models Brunswick machines, which allow maintaining the absolute identity of the oil profile on all lanes of the center, are passed by mechanics from bowling clubs that have already purchased such machines.
First School" Modern methods Lane Care" was held in January 2002 in the Moscow bowling center "Bow-Ball" (3rd street Yamskogo pole, 14).
The next school will be announced later. Follow company news.

The Theory of Constraints of Systems (TOS) has been successfully operating and developing for over thirty years. Thousands of companies around the world have adopted it as the main management approach to managing their business as a whole, or to managing a specific functional unit within an organization (for example, production, logistics, supply chain or projects).

Introduction

Organizations are created to achieve some purpose. They are run by managers. The role of management is to continually improve the performance of the organization and increase the value it brings. Managers have always existed, but management as a subject of study is a relatively new direction. Many universities began to teach management in the 1960s as part of a technical or economic education, later gradually moving to a separate full-time MBA education.

The emergence of computer technology in organizations has had a significant impact on the development of management as a profession. Information systems had to be based on management procedures, and this required the development of management approaches.

Manufacturing companies gained access to new approaches such as MRP (Manufacturing Resource Planning) in the early 1970s, TQM - general government quality (Total Quality Management), TOC (Theory of Constraints) - the theory of constraints in the mid-1980s.

Theory of Constraints is a systematic approach based on a rigid causal logic and combining both logical tools and logistical solutions. Thousands of organizations around the world have improved their operations quickly and effectively with the help of TOC. Materials and reports submitted by such companies can be found on numerous websites. For example, a Google search for Theory of Constraints yields 3,460,000 links. Presentations about the latest achievements and developments can be obtained on the website of the international certification organization TOCICO (TOC International Certification Organization) and on the special website of Goldratt Marketing Group - www.TOC.tv. TOC is taught at many universities, business schools and MBA programs around the world.

About the Theory of Constraints of Systems - TOC

The creator of TOC is Dr. Eli Goldratt, who has been developing the theory of constraints since 1975 with a group of close colleagues and practitioners. Currently, TOC covers numerous aspects of the management of organizations and systematically improves their performance. The essence of the theory is reflected in its name - "restriction".

Constraints are factors or elements that determine the limit of the system's performance.

The Theory of Constraints states that every system has a number of constraints, and these are the key to its control.

Figure 1: Constraint and its impact on the operation of the system.

A constraint is more than something that blocks the system from reaching its best level of performance. A limitation is what proper management"raise" the whole system to a new level. The desire for improvement is based on a strong belief that the system is capable of more. It is the gap between the current and desired levels performance gives managers the energy and perseverance to make improvements.

The Theory of Constraints provides a simple and practical approach to managing and improving a system through its constraints. There are several types of limits: capacity limit, lead time limit, and market limit (number of customer orders).

Power limitation - a resource that is not able to provide at the right time the power that the system requires from it.

Market constraint - the number of orders received by the firm is not enough to support the required growth of the system.

Time constraint - the response time of the system to market needs is too long, which compromises the ability of the system to fulfill its obligations to customers, as well as to expand its business.

The rules for driving a system through its limitations are simple and practical. These are the five focusing (guiding) steps:

Step 1. Find the constraint(s) of the system.

Step 2. Decide how to make the most of the system's constraint(s) ("get the most out of it").

Step 3. Subordinate all other elements of the system (not restrictions) to the decision.

The first three steps are known as "tidying up the house". They allow the manager to maintain control over the system and increase its reliability and predictability. The application of the first three steps already leads to a significant improvement in performance, since they eliminate a large number of existing losses in the system. As a rule, as a result of these three steps, the system begins to produce significantly more without any additional costs or investments. Once the system is in a stable state, it is ready for focused investment in areas that will bring the highest return, that is, for the next step:

Step 4. Expand the system limit. This means relieving the stress caused by the constraint by adding capacity (in the case of a capacity constraint), obtaining additional customer orders (in the case of a market constraint), and reducing lead times for orders and projects (in the case of a lead time constraint).

Step 5. If the constraint was removed in the previous step (it ceased to be a constraint), return to step 1. Warning: do not let inertia become the main blocking factor in the system's activity.

The transition from one constraint to another threatens the stability of the organization. Step 3, which requires the subordination of all other elements, forms the behavior of the entire system, which will be aimed at supporting plans and decisions to maximize the use of the constraint. It is within the framework of step 3 that the rules, procedures and mechanisms for day-to-day management are established. If the restriction is changed, all of these rules, procedures and mechanisms will be affected and require changes. Therefore, it is recommended to choose a strategic constraint and organize the operation of the entire system accordingly. This will keep the focus of management and the entire organization on the same constraint and ensure that the company continues to grow towards its goal.

The Theory of Constraints provides a set of solutions for manufacturing, distribution systems, project management, to manage functional units within the organization and to develop new local or strategic solutions.

This methodology provides the tools to answer four key questions about continuous improvement:

• What to change? - Identify the root (key) problem.
• What to change? - Develop simple practical solutions.
• How to ensure change? - Enlist the cooperation and support of the people needed to implement the solution.
• What creates a continuous improvement process? - Implement a mechanism to identify areas for improvement.

The results of applying the Theory of Constraints - examples of implementations

A distinctive characteristic of companies that have implemented CBT is how they weathered the economic crisis of 2008-2009. While their industries were experiencing severe declines in sales and profits, many of the companies using Theory of Constraints not only maintained their pre-crisis levels of performance, but were able to generate significant growth. In this article, I want to give a few examples of such companies.

Experience in implementing Theory of Constraints in Russia

LPK "Continental Management", timber holding company

Continental Management is a vertically integrated holding, one of the largest timber companies in Russia. The main activity of the company is the management of assets of the holding's enterprises engaged in complex wood processing. The holding's enterprises produce more than 200 types of products, from pulp, cardboard, packaging and newsprint to timber products. The turnover of the holding in 2009 amounted to 6 billion rubles. The holding, including enterprises in the regions of Russia, employs about 7,000 people.

The company began implementing Theory of Constraints at the end of 2008 with a training program for 20 company professionals led by Eli Schragenheim, one of the leading TOC experts, director of Goldratt Schools for Europe. Internal teams then worked with Inherent Simplicity to implement the implementation.

The results of the implementation of the Theory of Constraints in enterprises:

• The level of availability of products in the warehouse - increased to 95%
• Lead time reduced by up to 75%
• The period for which the results were achieved - 6 months
• Implementation continues in a number of other companies of the holding

By implementing the Theory of Constraints solution for the supply chain in a short time, the company solved the main management dilemma in the make-to-stock environment: how much to produce?

Companies hold stocks finished products because their customers don't want to wait for their order to be produced. Consequently, the company is forced to start production in the absence of firm orders and rely on the forecast. Since the forecast is never accurate, this leads on the one hand to a shortage of a number of items in the warehouse, which leads to lost sales, and on the other hand to an excess of other items, which leads to obsolescence and write-off of products and low turnover of goods.

According to TOC's decision, the factory warehouse is the part of the system where the majority of inventory should be stored. It supplies downstream warehouses and customers with the required products through frequent deliveries based on daily consumption information. The factory warehouse acts as the main "regulator" for the entire replenishment system, starting from production. The solution provides a significantly higher level of product availability with a significantly lower inventory level compared to conventional inventory management methods. The volume of sales increases as the probability increases that the customer will find what he needs in the warehouse, when he needs it. Product turnover increases as the inventory level in the system is constantly and continuously adjusted to actual market demand.

Experience of implementing Theory of Constraints in India

Fleetguard Filters Pvt Ltd, supplier to the automotive industry.
Presented by Niranjan Kirloskar.

This company started applying TOC in 2006. They quickly improved their work production units, achieved a high level of on-time fulfillment and a high level of stock availability of finished goods in the factory warehouse, and then, ensured a high level of availability of products in regional warehouses, while reducing the overall level of inventory. The market responded with a steady growth in demand for the company's products. As a result, the company received a significant increase in profits.

On the international conference TOCICO in Tokyo in November 2009, the company presented a report on the results of its activities.

Figure 2: Fleetguard Filters Performance - Sales and Net Income

It should be noted that Fleetguard Filters achieved such results in the face of a decline in production in the automotive industry. Despite the fact that in 2008 the industry experienced an 80% decrease in production volumes, the company had a 10% profit without a decrease in sales volumes. In 2009, the decline continued, but the company increased sales by 18%, increasing net profit by 50%. According to their estimates, a significant increase in sales volumes is expected, and an even greater increase in profits.

How has such growth been achieved?

• The company used the existing capacities to the maximum and ensured 100% availability of finished products. Compared to 2006, the company was able to "squeeze out" of the existing capacity almost twice as much.
• A record time to develop and bring new products to market has been achieved, which is only one third of the industry standard time.
• The company provided distributors and retailers with a significant increase in the turnover of goods due to its 100% availability.
• A high reliability of supplies to OEMs and the export market was ensured.

This is an example of a holistic Theory of Constraints solution that includes manufacturing, distribution (supply chain), new product development, marketing, sales, and human resource management.

Results achieved:

• The level of availability of products in the factory warehouse - 99% with 6-8 days of stock,
• The level of availability of products in the regional warehouse - 99% with a 12-day stock volume,
• Close to 100% availability of products from distributors,
• The volume of work in progress - 2? 3 days
• The level of availability of raw materials - more than 98%

Implemented by Kiran Kothekar, Vector Consulting Group

Experience of implementing Theory of Constraints in Japan

Juntos, public sector bridge design and construction company

Due to constant natural disasters, the consequences of which must be eliminated, the Ministry of Public Lands, Infrastructure, Tourism and Transport of Japan initiates thousands of projects every year. In recent years, public funding has fallen to about half of what it was during its peak. Before many construction companies the task was to reduce costs and time of project implementation. Many companies have realized that they need The best way project management.

In 2007 Juntos management decided to use the Theory of Constraints method for project management.

Results achieved:

• On-time delivery (completion of projects as originally planned) increased from 30% to 86%
• Project lead time reduced by more than 20%
• Costs for materials and equipment decreased by more than 20%
• Improved communication process with customers.

The critical chain projects were led by Keita Asaine and Ryoma Shiratsuchi.

Experience in implementing Theory of Constraints in the UK

Positive Solutions - financial consulting

Positive Solutions provides financial planning services in the UK. The company offers its assistance in matters of investments, loans, pensions, insurance and others and works through independent financial advisors. The company's headquarters is located in Newcastle, UK. Since 2002 the company has been subsidiary AEGON UK.

Company founder David Harrison built it from scratch. As sales growth remained below expectations, David used TOC logic tools to analyze the UK independent financial advisor market and identified key issues:

• The speed of attracting independent consultants was insufficient and did not allow to achieve the planned level of growth
• The sales cycle time was too long and did not allow to achieve sales targets
• The company's offerings were not differentiated from competitors' offerings
• Resources were loaded at full capacity, resulting in lost sales.

To address the issues identified, in 2001 the company applied Theory of Constraints to manage the recruitment of new independent consultants and build more efficient process sales.

Results achieved:

• Within one month, the number of consultants involved in cooperation doubled, and over the next two months - tripled
• Turnover grew by 40% during the year to reach £25.6 million
• Gross profit up 54% to £6.2m
• Positive Solutions was ranked second in the national Vantis Top 100, topping the list of financial services companies.

The implementation was carried out by Oded Cowan (International Director of Goldratt Schools) together with Andy Watt (www.goldratt.co.uk). This example is described in the supplement to the anniversary edition of E.M. Goldratt "The Purpose", dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the first edition of the book.

Other examples of implementing Theory of Constraints

There are many publications in which companies themselves or independent experts describe the results achieved through the implementation of TOC. There are over 90 such links on the Goldratt Marketing Group website. Over 400 publications scientific research were published as a book "The World of Constraints" by Victoria Mabin and Stephen Balderstone (" The World of Theory of Constraints" by Victoria J Mabin and Steven J. Balderstone).

Listed below are some famous companies and institutions that have publicly declared their use of Theory of Constraints:

ABB Switzerland

Boeing Aviation & Space

US Marine Corps base maintenance technology

Elwood City Forge USA

Israeli Aircraft Industry

Amdocs Israel

Dr Reddy's Pharmaceutical Company India

Tata Steel India

You can learn more about their experience by searching for information on the Internet, indicating in the request next to the phrase "Theory of Constraints" the name of the company.

This country leads in the number of lanes per inhabitant (1/2,250); the United States is followed by the countries of the British Commonwealth, Scandinavia and Japan in this indicator. In total, in 120 countries of the world, according to data for 2007, there were about 10 million regular bowling players. Players unite in clubs, clubs - in various associations, which, in turn, organize national and international tournaments.

The largest and most authoritative association is International Bowling Federation(World Bowling; WB), uniting the federations of 134 countries. The federation is recognized as the official regulator and sets the rules and standards for 10-pin and 9-pin bowling equipment around the world. WB championships are held every 2 years.

Story

Prototypes of a bowling game - that is, a round, rather heavy projectile, designed more for rolling than for throwing, with a set of targets of the same type - archaeologists and ethnographers discover in various parts light: in India and in Finland, in Yemen and in Polynesia. The oldest example of a proto-bowling game is considered to be a game set found in 1930 in the burial of a teenager. predynastic era in Egypt and dating back to 3200 BC. e. The oldest room equipped for a game similar to bowling was also found in Egypt, in Cairo, in 2007 - the building dates back to 2000 BC. e.

However, the home contemporary bowling should be considered the area of ​​Upper Germany, - the existence of wooden pegs(Kegel) and stone ball for their knocking out (Kugel) there is evidence already for the 3rd century AD. e. At first they were used in religious rituals: knocking down a peg was freed from sin. Gradually, the ritual was desacralized and developed into a fun that many German-speaking peoples loved. During the Great Migration, most likely, this game spread throughout Europe: by the end of the Middle Ages, under related names, it is known in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark and England. At the same time, the rules and equipment of the game varied not only from country to country, but also from city to city, because of which, obviously, its modern diversity has developed: only in 9-pin bowling there are about a hundred game options.

Bowling. Miniature, Germany, 1736

The world's oldest and still operating bowling alley is located in England, in Southampton, - it is claimed that as such it was used as early as 1299. And in 1366, King Edward III of England was already forced to ban " balls on the grass in his own troops, prompting the over-excited soldiers to devote their free time to more rewarding archery exercises.

In the 16th century, varieties of bowling, especially 9-pin bowling, became a general hobby for the peoples living in the North Sea basin. Everyone plays it - peasants and workers, soldiers and sailors, nobles and kings - English, Dutch, Danes, Germans, French. Moreover, often to the detriment of their direct duties and wallet. King Henry VIII of England, a passionate gambler himself, issued a decree forbidding everyone except wealthy citizens from playing “balls on grass”, since discipline was loosened in the troops and among the working people. It is said about the same monarch that he came up with the idea of ​​​​using cannonballs as a ball.

At the same time, there is evidence that it was the great contemporary of Henry VIII, the German religious reformer Martin Luther, who allegedly fixed the name of the game " skittles” and set the number of pins in the game to 9 as the optimal number. Also, the famous English corsair Francis Drake is told that the news of the approach of enemies caught him in the middle of a bowling game, in response to which he allegedly said: “There is still enough time to defeat ... and the Spaniards too!”. And about Drake's younger contemporary, the pious King James I, they say that, fearing sin, he avoided playing many games, but made exceptions for bowling.

Thus, it is quite natural that in the era of the colonization of America, along with the colonists, a popular game also moved to the New World. The oldest park in Manhattan in New York is called Bowling Green, just like eight cities in old states» USA . Settlers from Holland and the German principalities were especially devoted.

« First A.K.B. Championship
6 tracks. 41 team for 5 human". Poster, Chicago, 1901

By the second quarter of the 19th century, bowling in America had become so obviously gambling, fraught with brawls, sorrows and cheating, that the game was first banned in Kentucky, then in New York, and in 1870 in the entire United States of America . Together with these bans, 10-pin bowling (tenpin), which was not formally subject to the law, appeared and began to spread rapidly. The pins in it were arranged not in a rhombus, as with 9 pins, but in a triangle. Gradually, the number of differences increased. By the end of the 19th century, this 10-pin variant (tenpin) almost completely replaced the 9-pin variant in the United States.

And although the origin of the “tenth pins” in the United States is disputed by England and Scotland, the United States will rightly be considered the birthplace of the most popular version of bowling, since it was here in 1895 that the American Bowling Congress established official standards for pins, lanes and balls and developed uniform rules for the game. into tenpin; and also held the first championship in world history (Chicago, 1901).

Rules

One batch consists of 10 frames. In each frame, the player has two shots. If a player knocks down all 10 pins with the first throw, this is called strike(eng. strike - strike) and is denoted by "X". If a player knocks down all 10 pins in two rolls, the roll is called spar(English spare - spare) and is indicated by "/". If, as a result of the first throw in the frame, non-adjacent pins remain, for example corner 7 and 10, such a combination is called split(English split - split) and is indicated Ⓢ (\displaystyle \circledS ), where S is the number of pins knocked down. For the “conversion” of a split, that is, a split spare, no additional points are awarded, except for a spare. If after two throws there are unknocked pins, such a frame is called "open".

If there is a strike in the frame, the score for that frame will be equal to the number of pins knocked down in that frame (10 pins) plus the number of pins actually knocked down in the next two rolls (in one or two frames, depending on whether the strike was in the next roll) . If a spar is knocked down in a frame, then the score will be equal to the number of pins knocked down in that frame (10 pins) plus the number of pins actually knocked down on the first roll in the next frame. If the frame remains open, then the total points will be equal to the number of pins knocked down in this frame.

Since the number of points in a frame, in the case of a strike and a spare, depends not only on the rolls in this frame, but also on the following rolls, the last, 10th, frame receives a special status. If a strike is thrown on the first roll in the tenth frame, the player may make two more rolls in the same frame. If a spare occurs in the tenth frame, the player may make another throw. It should be noted that spars and strikes in the 10th frame naturally do not apply to the above rules, since there is no next frame. If there are still unknocked pins in the first two rolls in the tenth frame and the frame is open, the game ends.

Thus, the maximum number of points in one set is 300, since the maximum amount of points that can be earned in each frame is 30 points (10 points for a strike in this frame, plus 20 points for strikes in the next two rolls). In professional leagues such as the PBA, the best players usually score at least 200 points per game.

Two strikes in a row are called "double" (English double - double), three - "graters" (English turkey - turkey), four - "hambone" (English hambone - ham).

Equipment

Professional bowling ball and skittle

Official bowling competitions using a set of 10 pins are held only on special equipment that meets all specifications and standards International Bowling Federation(World Bowling; WB). Equipment requirements are established by Order of the Ministry of Sports of the Russian Federation No. 742 dated September 2, 2014. In the event of a sports situation not described in this Order, WB rules and standards apply.

Tracks

Tracks originated in the street version of the game - indoors, as a rule, were content with the floor. The simpler paths were made of strong clay or slates, and the more expensive ones were made of pine and maple boards 1 inch thick and 3 wide; among the rich, the boards were laid on the edge in a special sequence and tightly pulled together " with the skill of a parquet floorer", while the poor could save money by laying improvised boards flat. A canopy could be installed over the path from the sun and rain. At the end of the lane, there was a place for a "boy" (boy), collecting and placing downed pins, keeping score and returning the balls through a special chute.

Modern tracks are made mainly from heavy-duty synthetic materials, also made of wood and covered with strictly regulated WB varnish are allowed.

In a modern bowling alley, the length of the track from the spacing line to the centerline of pin #1 is 60 ft ± 1/2" (18288 ± 13 mm), from the centerline of pin #1 to the trailing edge is 34 3/16" ± 1/16" (868.5 ± 1.5 mm), while the total length from the spade line to the rear edge has no tolerances (reference) and is 62 feet 10 3 / 16 in. (19156 mm exactly).

Track width is 41 1/2" ± 1/2" (1054 ± 12.7mm)

The lane also includes the approach area, foul line, flat chutes, fenders, pin area, tailgate, pin chute, automatic pin setter, markings and signs. Their shape, size, quantity, method of manufacture and all intermediate distances are strictly regulated and often do not have tolerances, or have minimal ones. For example, "landmarks" in the approach zone must be round, but not more than 3/4 inch (19 mm), and the foul line must be at least 3/8 inch (9.5 mm), but not more than 1 (25 .4 mm).

The slope of the track, its surface and friction force are also controlled, deviations in which not allowed.

Before the competition, laboratory measurements of all control parameters of the track are mandatory.

Skittles

Until 1895, when the material, size and weight of pins were first standardized, pins were available in all possible varieties: clay, wood, stone - the most whimsical forms. In modern bowling, all characteristics (even the presence of images and the thickness of the paint layer) are regulated. However, some concessions are allowed, especially with regard to new technologies or the prestige of large manufacturers. In the Russian rules, established by a special Order of the Ministry of Sports, on the contrary, in relation to the pin standard, they adhere to a conservative approach. So, the use of a set of colored pins and pins not made of wood, according to Russian rules, is allowed only in competitions organized by the International Bowling Federation ().

Skittles are made of solid maple, - from a single piece or from several layers. Weight A standard pin with covers must be no less than 3 lb 6 oz (1531 g) and no more than 3 lb 10 oz (1645 g). Height pins should be 15 ± 1/32 inches (380-382 mm). The radius of curvature of a uniform arc at the top of the pin is 1.273" ± 1/32" (31.5 - 33 mm).

At a height of 4.5 inches (114 mm) above the base of the pin, the diameter of the pin should be 4.755 to 4.797 inches (121 to 122 mm). Such accuracy is important because the center of gravity of the pin depends on it and, therefore, its stability, which affects the entire game. The pins are sized so that each pin has 24% resistance to the weight of the heaviest ball, which, according to the rules, is 16 pounds (7.5 kg).

Reasonable wear of pins, cleaning of dirt and splinters with a metal washcloth (scrub) or sandpaper, plastic coating patches, - provided that all these actions provide the same appearance pins included, and are within WB standards.

balls

Rolling balls ("house balls")

From antiquity to 1895, the time of the approval of the first official rules, balls were made from arbitrary materials and a wide variety of sizes. To XIX century empirically, a backout ball was recognized as optimal, - exceptionally useful, rare in hardness and strength of wood. For its amazing properties, backout was called "lignum vitae" (Latin tree of life), "palo santo" (Spanish holy tree), "greenheart" (English green heart). It is obvious that the cost of a ball of such valuable wood was quite consistent with the rarity of the material.

Technique for running and throwing the ball

In 1905, the first acceptable substitute for the overly expensive backout appeared - natural rubber (Evertrue). In 1911, it was replaced by even cheaper synthetic rubber (Mineralite), which prevailed as the main material for bowling balls until the 1970s, the era of synthetic polymers.

As of 2015, according to the current Russian rules, balls made no earlier than January 1, 1991 are allowed to play. Balls are made of polyester (in everyday life - plastic - the material of rolling balls) and various modifications of polyurethane ("reactive resin", epoxy resin, polyurethane with the addition of quartz particles, etc. - materials of professional balls).

Professional balls differ from rolling balls (provided for playing by bowling centers) not only in material, but also in structure. Its heterogeneity due to the presence of the core provides a shift in the center of gravity of the ball relative to its geometric center, which increases the rotation of the ball and the potential for arcuate movement ("hook") from the edge of the track to the "pocket" - the area between the first and third pins (for right-handers) or the first and second skittles (for left-handers).

In addition, holes for fingers in professional balls are drilled individually so that the middle and ring fingers enter the ball only along the first phalanx.

1. « Low ball"(Low Boll) - task: with the same number of frames and approaches, score as few points as possible. Strikes and spars count as usual. A miss on the first ball counts as a strike. If the second ball is thrown, but does not knock down all the pins without (?) hitting the chute, it is considered as a spare. At least one pin must be knocked down per set. A miss on the second ball counts as a strike. The ideal score is 20 (one pin per set in 10 frames).
2. « Bayreuth bowling» (Byroute Bowling) - a team game on two lanes. Task: each player of the team must throw out a strike as quickly as possible. At the beginning of the game, one player from each team approaches their lanes until one of them scores a strike, the striker is immediately replaced by another member of his team. Free refills.
3. « 3-6-9 » - a normal game, in which, however, in 3, 6, and 9 frames, a strike is considered in advance.
4. « Light strike"(Light Strike) - a regular game, however, 9 (option - 8) pins are also considered a strike; a split without the main pin (No. 1) counts as a spare.
5. « 21 ”- a regular game, however, for a game, the player must choose a frame in order to approach the third time. It can be any frame except the tenth, and the player must use an additional approach.
6. « Baker"(Baker) - a game of teams of 5 people on two (option - one) tracks. The first players fit on frames 1 and 5, the second on frames 2 and 6, etc. If the team has less or more than 5 people, some players fit more or less often.
7. « Scottish couple» - two players play on the same lane, and the first one approaches only the first throws in the frame, and the second - only the second. Through the game, the order changes.

Bowling in Russia

Bowling in cinema

Notes

1. Frame (from the English frame - a group of something that forms the basis of something, a frame) - this is the name in bowling of a player's approach to the lane with the right to throw the ball twice, usually the game is played up to 10 frames.
2. // Encyclopædia Britannica / Chisholm, Hugh, ed.. - 11th ed.. - New York: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc, 1911. - Vol. IV, BISHĀRĪN to CALGARY. - P. 344. - 1004 p.
3. Belykh, Anton. Skittle Boom // Moscow Business Journal: Journal. - 2007. - No. 6. - S. 14-20. -

Sports games are a great way to have a great time, especially if you can sit at a table and chat with friends at the same time. Often you want not only to enjoy the process, but also to win. From this publication you will learn how to play bowling correctly, its technique and other features.

Brief history and description of the game

The considered one began to look in a modern way at the end of the 19th century. Previously, it used 9 pins, then one more was added. In the late 30s of the 20th century, the pinsetter was invented in the USA - a device for automatically setting pins and returning the ball. In the 70s, the scoring system was automated.

Bowling is popular with men and women of all ages and professions. The goal of the game is to knock down the maximum number of pins with the help of balls. There are different types of bowling: 5 and 10 goals. They differ not only in the number of pins, but also in the number of throws in one frame. The most common is the second option. The ball must be directed along a special area without going beyond it (otherwise, no targets will be hit).

Security measures

Regardless of the level of the player (beginner or amateur), you should start with a warm-up. Muscles should be warmed up and ready for the upcoming loads. If this is not done, there is a risk of injury. In addition, the following bowling rules must be observed:

1. Since the player is constantly on the move, he must have comfortable non-slip and non-scratch shoes (issued in bowling clubs).
2. If the muscles of the arms are poorly developed, you should not take a ball that is too heavy, otherwise your back will hurt. People who want to understand how to play bowling correctly often ignore this point, and wake up the next morning in a sick state.
3. It is forbidden to cross the foul line, otherwise the result is not counted. The thing is that before the start of the game, the surface beyond the established boundary is covered with a special substance. If you step over the line, the sole will come into contact with it and become slippery. As a result, serious injury may result.

How to play bowling: rules

One game consists of ten frames, in each of which the players have the opportunity to make two shots. If all the pins are knocked down in one attempt, this is called a strike (X), if from two - spare (I). When there are far corners left after the kick, the combination is called a split (S). If after two throws it was not possible to knock down all the pins, the frame is called open.

When the player manages to make a strike, the amount of points from the next two strikes is doubled. If it turned out to be a spare, then only the result from one next throw increases. In other cases, points are awarded according to the number of pins knocked down. It happens that a player knocks down all the pins twice in a row on the first try. Such a combination is called a double and it is awarded 20 points. Since the final number of points depends not only on the current, but also on the next approach, the tenth frame receives a special status. If in it a player knocks out a strike from one throw, he makes two more. When it is possible to make a spare, one roll.

Selecting and holding a ball

Those who want to get an answer to the question of how to play bowling correctly should be able to choose the right ball. On each of them there are numbers indicating the weight in pounds (1 unit is equal to 0.45 kilograms). Ideally, the mass of the product should be 1/10 of the player's weight. For children, balls with the number 6-7 are intended. Women and girls - numbers 8-9, and men - from 10 to 16. The weight of the ball should be average for the player: not too light or heavy.

In principle, the more the ball weighs, the easier it is to control, which is why professionals prefer them. For unprepared people who dream of understanding how to play bowling correctly, such an experiment will cost a dislocation, sprain or rupture of the ligaments. The next day, the back may ache, especially after drinking alcohol, which does not allow you to feel muscle overload.

Standard balls have three holes (slots) designed for the thumb, middle and ring fingers. The large one sinks completely, and the rest only to the second phalanx. The index finger and little finger are freely located on the surface, and the palm lightly touches it. The most important thing is the convenience of a person to hold the object.

bowling

Knowing the rules is not enough to score a lot of points and win the game. Bowling technique must be observed. This whole fascinating process does not tolerate fuss, so before the first throw after choosing the ball, you should carefully feel its weight and inertia. In order to hit more targets, the product is released in the fourth step, each of which is done with a small swing of the arm back. At the last, the ball is deflected forward and a throw is made. In this case, it is important to aim as accurately as possible.

If you want to understand how to play bowling correctly, you need to know the ball: with a width of 1.6 m, the lane is 18 meters long. The skittles are in the form of a triangle. A blow is considered professional when a strike is obtained.

How to determine the result of the game?

The calculation of points is a troublesome process, so it is entrusted to automated systems. The results are displayed on a separate monitor after each hit on the target. The task of the players is to learn how to make the correct throw and knock down all the pins, following the rules of bowling. The player with the maximum number of points wins.

In one frame, you can score 30 points if there are three strikes in a row. Participants who scored high results (from 200 points) have a fairly high level of skill. A game with 300 points (12 strikes in a row) is called "Perfect Game", which means "Perfect Game".

How to win at bowling?

Many come to the center just to relax, and glasses are not too important for them. Those who wish to win the game can give a few recommendations. Beginners should remember that they are playing for fun and should not chase the results of professionals who spend half the day bowling. The rules and technique of the game must be observed, otherwise points are lost. No need to rush anywhere. For starters, it is better to use light balls.

In order to get a strike, you need to aim not at the closest single pin, but located between two or more other targets. This secret creates a domino effect that increases the chances of getting a strike. Regular training remains the most important criterion for success. The more often a person visits a bowling center, the higher his results.

Benefits of bowling

The considered type of leisure takes place in active movement. At this time, the body experiences a surge of energy, which improves blood circulation. The bowling technique forces you to do a lot of tilts and turns during the game, the muscles are constantly activated and this together helps to lose weight!

Working with the ball trains the hands, improves the flexibility of the ligaments and joints. Bowling is good for mental health, unloading the body and strengthening relationships in the team. It gives mood and is a great way to relieve tension and stress, and therefore prolong life.

Now you know all the basics about bowling: the rules and technique of the game, the calculation of results, the benefits. Become a professional or an amateur - everyone decides for himself. It is important to remember about safety measures, but the main thing is to have the best time possible.

The problems of systemic thinking are considered on the basis of the tensor approach. An attempt is made to define the concept of "system", as well as to determine the properties that an object must have in order to be called a system.

The concept of "system" has been used and studied for a long time and in almost all spheres of human activity. Particular interest in it was shown in the 60-80s, when the fundamental works on the general theory of systems appeared. However, most modern authors note that there are still no methods not only for synthesis, but also for the analysis of systems that could be applied in any field of activity. Some publications even conclude that it is useless to try to define the system. In our opinion, the complexity of the problem should not stop people from studying such an interesting phenomenon and concept as a system.

Systemic thinking is characterized by internal inconsistency, which manifests itself in the paradox of integrity and the paradox of hierarchy. The paradox of integrity implies that when analyzing a system, it must be dismembered, but the properties of the integrity of the system disappear. The paradox of hierarchy lies in the need to describe the system as an element of a supersystem, etc. In turn, to describe systemic thinking, as such, one also has to use non-systemic concepts.

Despite these difficulties, the ideas of a systematic approach are widely used in the socio-economic, political, military spheres, in biology, psychology, computer science, information theory, linguistics, etc.

The main ideas of the system approach were presented in the works of famous scientists A.A. Bogdanova , L. Bertalanffy , N. Wiener , V.I. Sadovsky, M.I. Setrova, G.P. Melnikov, M. Mesarovich and J. Takahara, K. Bowling, Yu.A. Schrader, Yu.A. Urmantseva, A.I. Uemova and others.

The objectives of this article did not include a detailed discussion of all publications devoted to the essence of systems, so the author apologizes to everyone whose work is not mentioned in this text.

The most complete critical analysis of publications on general systems theory is given by A. Grin, with the help of which we will highlight the main contradictions in defining the system, in particular, from the analyzed works it follows that the main features of the system are:

1) the presence of a holistic structure that provides the system with new integrative qualities;

2) a clearly fixed position of the elements in relation to each other and the whole;

3) the existence of a goal or functional orientation;

4) hierarchical structure.

A. Grin showed that in the general case, the system may not have any of these features, since the structure of the system may be indefinite, and therefore its elements cannot be fixed, the system may not be purposeful and not have a specific function. In his opinion, the functional-structural definition of the system is not constructive. The most general definition of a system can be found in N. Wiener, in particular, he believes that the meaning of the system approach lies in the idea of ​​a "black box", the study of which is carried out by studying its reactions to the effects exerted on it.

A. Grin refers to the system features: the boundary of the system, openness, i.e. flow, implying that various types of flows (system-forming flows) flow through the system and, finally, a unique qualitative change in the system-forming flow at the input and output of the system. Identification of flows and determination of system boundaries is a non-trivial task in a systems approach.

S.I. Matorin notes that the big drawback of the systems approach is that the method of analyzing the system is determined not only by the purpose of the analysis, but also by the subjective decision of the analyst, since this method is not a priori determined. A similar problem arises when synthesizing a system (assembling from parts of a whole), since there are no formal operations on a set of parts, although it is declared that when the parts are combined, a new property is formed (a system effect, as a property of the whole). S.I. Matorin offers the following definition of a system as a functional object, the function of which is determined by the function of an object of a higher tier, i.e., a supersystem. The function of the system is manifested, first of all, in the functional connections of this system with other systems that make up its surrounding conditions in a certain supersystem. At the same time, the system itself consists of functional objects of a lower tier (subsystems (elements) that make up its substance), which create its structure with their functional connections and support the function (functional connections) of the system. Communication is considered as an exchange between systems and some elements, which are substances of certain deep tiers of connected systems. S.I. Matorin develops the so-called functional systemology, a feature of which is the relationship of maintaining the functional ability of the whole and is not reducible to relationships between sets and cannot be described by set-theoretic means.

I.V. Prangishvili believes that the system approach is a set of methods and tools that allow you to explore the properties, structure and functions of objects, phenomena or processes, presenting them as systems with all the complex inter-element relationships, the mutual influence of elements on the system and on environment, as well as the influence of the system itself on its structural elements. According to I.V. Prangishvili and V.I. Sadovsky, there are four main features that an object, phenomenon or individual faces (slices) must have in order to be considered a system. These include: a sign of the integrity and segmentation of the object; a sign of stable links between the elements of the system; a sign of the presence of an integrative (systemic) property; sign of the organization of developing systems. When classifying systems I.V. Prangishvili proposes to use a substantive feature, according to which four classes of systems are distinguished: artificial, natural, ideal (conceptual) and virtual systems.

In our opinion, the concept of consistency in most systems approaches is either replaced by the concept of structure, or functionality, or quality. Such concepts as integrity, developability, integrativity, etc. are widely used for these purposes. In our opinion, the most appropriate methodological tool in the study of systems is tensor methodology, and our vision of the tensor approach to systems is given in.

There are two views on systems. One is static, which does not consider the processes occurring in the system, the other is dynamic, which includes these processes. Processes in systems are flows of some quantities under the influence of other quantities that occur in certain paths formed by the components of the structures of these systems.

A.E. Petrov notes that there is no mathematical apparatus that combines structure and metric (function) at the same time. However, electrical circuits and their descriptions are the most appropriate way to model circuits (structures) and processes at the same time. Processes in electrical circuits are well modeled by Ohm's law, and the structure of circuits is described by Kirchhoff's laws. In the tensor approach, space is understood not as a continuous geometric space, but as a space-structure, which is discrete and consists of structure components. Path sets in these structures are used as coordinate systems, and changes to the structure or the choice of a different path are treated as coordinate transformations. In this text, we will be guided by the following principles:

Physical abstraction: any element of the universe of the universe irreversibly moves in time together with the universe, relatively in space (geometric) and in the universe (belongings) of the universe;

Complementarity: the elements of the universe of the Universe, in addition to the corpuscular nature, have the wave property and the property of complexity (self-organization);

Reflectivity: the elements of the universe of the Universe have the property of reflection, both in themselves and in other elements of this universe and other universes of the Universe.

In our opinion, discreteness is a property of the individual, as primary in relation to the general, while in general discretes (corpuscles) cannot overlap each other; continuity is a property of the whole, as primary in relation to its parts (quanta), while the parts (quanta) can overlap each other, i.e., partially or completely included in each other. Complexity is a property of a dynamic organization, as primary in relation to its members (simple), and the division of the complex into simple members leads to the disappearance of the complex, for example, the dismemberment of the brain for the purpose of its functional study cannot give a result.

In accordance with the principle of reflectivity, the Universe is knowable, and knowledge is carried out through sensory perception, reflection in the human brain and logical interpretation and explanation of the essence of the elements of the universe of the Universe. In this regard, it is possible to formulate cognitive principles:

Systemic: the elements of the universe of the Universe are considered as a system if it includes at least two elements from different universes of the Universe, producing a property that each element separately does not have, and the property of belonging to its own universes is also preserved; - logical: an element of the universe of the Universe, considered as a subject of research, must have triune properties: sufficiency, necessity and coherence.

If we introduce the concept of "system", then, according to the well-known principle of "Occam's razor", it should not be reduced to already used terms, but should have its own unique content. To do this, it is necessary to separate the concepts of "object" and "system", which is not an easy task, since the concept of "object" is no less complex than the system.

A.I. Uemov believes that thing, object and object are synonyms. He gives an analysis of these concepts in the literature and compares them with the concepts of the body, separateness, individuality. In the traditional sense, the concept of "thing" coincides with the concept of "body", and by "body" they mean a thing that has a boundary (volume), which is defined as separateness in geometric space. The traditional understanding of the thing and the body leads to serious difficulties, for example, the well-known paradox with Theseus's ship, in which all boards are successively replaced. Modern physics has proven that classical space-time continuity does not extend to the world of particles. In quantum (wave) physics, the motion of both one particle and their combination cannot be determined, but only represented by some formation with a certain density and probability of detecting particles. It follows that the same thing can be in different places at the same time, and different things at the same time in one place, which is contrary to common sense. A.I. On this basis, Uemov believes that the spatio-temporal criterion is not sufficient for the individualization of identical things in the aggregate. He believes that in order to separate things from each other, it is necessary to use the property of the quality of things. The concept of the qualitative boundary of things was formulated by Hegel. In a qualitatively homogeneous environment, it makes no sense to single out any of its parts. On the other hand, qualitatively different things, for example, electromagnetic and gravitational fields may not have boundaries in space at all. A.I. Uyomov developed the concept of a thing to the concept of a system, in particular, that a thing (object) is a system of qualities, and different things are different systems qualities. He believes that a system is any object in which any relation takes place that has a pre-fixed property. Thus, to identify two things, it is not necessary to compare all their points, but it is enough to compare their boundaries. If the boundaries of things intersect, then they are indistinguishable and identical. At the same time, not only spatio-temporal boundaries are implied here, but also qualitative ones. Changes are quantitative, spatio-temporal, if they do not lead to a qualitative (essential) change in a thing, do not lead to the disappearance of identity.

Just as we distinguish between parts of space or intervals of time, A.I. Uyomov distinguishes parts of the quality of things or systems of qualities. For example, he considers the electric and magnetic components of the electromagnetic field as special things, representing subsystems of one system of qualities. He believes that two things are identical, that is, they are one thing, if any change in quality that transforms one of them transforms the other, therefore, he supports the principle of indistinguishability as the basis for identifying things. The concept of the quality of a thing is relative, since if any states of water are attributed to the universe "water", then the aggregates of ice and water in a closed volume will determine the generalized quality of the object.

Identity in the dialectical understanding is also relative, it contains the moment of difference. A.I. Uyomov gives an example: a juvenile delinquent after correction in the Makarenko colony, from a physiological point of view, is the same person, but in socially it's perfect different people. He believes that a qualitative understanding of a thing allows it to be used for ideal things, to which he refers systems of signs of mappings objectively. existing qualities. On the other hand, abstract entities, such as a process, are also qualitatively things, such as, for example, a chair.

The terms "thing" and "quality" have undergone significant changes since the time of Hegel and no longer correspond to the meaning of the very concepts that they named. In our opinion, at this stage of the development of society, it is necessary to give these concepts new terms. Contrasting spatio-temporal and qualitative properties of things is incorrect. The trinity of the space-time material phenomenon is manifested in the trinity of temporal, spatial and elemental properties. In turn, the element of the universe of the Universe can be considered as a trinity of properties of the carrier, a set of "thing qualities" or, in our opinion, subject properties and properties of the "communicant", i.e., those properties of connections that are formed in relation to this element. Object carrier - a material and/or material object, on (in) which a real and/or ideal and/or abstract object is displayed or reflected. The subject of an object is at least one essential property of an object. An object's communicant is at least one connection property that occurs in the object's environment about the object itself. At present, the word "quality" has many meanings, but the most common meaning refers to the quality of products, therefore, under the philosophical category "quality" we mean the following. Qualitative properties, in our opinion, are subject (essential) properties that are objective in nature, but also subjective, since they are chosen by the researcher based on their goals.

Different researchers of the same element or object can observe it in different environments and from different angles, for example, one observer can study only structural properties, and another only functional ones. People, even well-known objects, perceive ambiguously, for example, a circle drawn on a plane is perceived as an ellipse when viewed from an oblique angle. The color of a colored object will change depending on the color of the light with which this object is irradiated, therefore the property of the object is the result of the manifestation of the connection of at least two elements. If we take into account that the object and its property is chosen by the subject, then the property is a potential opportunity to produce a response of a certain type in the subject. On the other hand, the color property is a property of the universe of all colors. It is known that the color spectrum is modeled in the form of a standardized universe (catalog) of color plates, in which there is a named discrete set of certain color shades, with the help of which the color of specific elements is determined.

In any theoretical consideration of some issues, an idealized model of real processes, phenomena or an even more simplified model of their real components is always created, as a rule, they operate with the concept of "object of study". This is done in order to identify essential concepts and their relationships, with the help of which it is possible to obtain some dependencies, including quantitative ones, further used in practical activities. Elements, objects and their properties are assigned certain terms and their definitions are given, representing concepts. By "concept" we mean an abstract object, i.e., an individualized set of functional properties and connections between them, to which the subject responds. Based on the principle of reflectivity, an element is reflected in itself, as well as in other elements, therefore, the reflectivity property manifests itself in the form of ideal and abstract elements, which are, respectively, a reflection of real (material) elements and a reflection of reflection, i.e. reflection elements that do not really exist. Thus, in addition to real elements, ideal and abstract ones can be distinguished.

The real object of research is some reflection of a real element of the universe of the Universe or, as it is also called, a "piece of reality". A given object can either display itself, i.e., be a given element, or display something other than this element and, finally, display a display. As a rule, if an object displays not itself, but some real elements, then this object is called an ideal object. If the object displays a mapping, i.e., elements that do not really exist, then such objects are called abstract. Reflection must be considered in two forms, as a process of reflection and as a product of the process of reflection. On the other hand, reflections must be distinguished from mapping. Reflection, as a product of the process of reflection, is alienable from that which it reflects, but not alienable from that on which it is reflected, i.e., the bearer of the reflection. For example, reflection in the human brain is a kind of intellectual product of thought, but not expressed in the form of a word, gesture, sound, etc. Reflection in this case is not alienated from the carrier until it is expressed. The display is alienable from the reflection, since, for example, it can be expressed (manifested) on another medium. A display can be referred to as an information product that either displays itself, or something other than itself, or displays a display. In this sense, the embodiment is a reflection in the form of some material (materialized) product that exists as a carrier alienated from the subject and embodies the intellectual product expressed by the subject.

When a researcher individualizes and describes an object, he actually places it in a categorical space and selects a set of certain categories, within the transformations of which he determines the properties of the object. At the same time, the researcher is not interested in changing the object itself (it is assumed that it remains unchanged in the process of movement), but in changing its representation through simpler objects or components, which can be considered as some properties of the object, expressed by elementary carriers of these properties. Thus, the decomposition of an object into its constituent categorical simpler objects can be interpreted as a representation of the object in a particular coordinate system of some categorical space, and the set of components of this space may not form a vector, and the coordinate axes may represent incommensurable quantities. Let's call this space the categorical Universe. The space of the Universe under consideration is not geometric, the dimensions of the coordinate axes in it are not the same, and each categorical axis can be used to build its own analogous categorical Universe. For example, the coordinate of the world line L in three-dimensional categorical space (L, T, G) can be represented as a triple of coordinates (X, Y, Z) in the usual geometric space L>(X, Y, Z), where T is time, G - elementality of the universe of the Universe. The Universe is an indefinable term that refers to the self-evident Universe surrounding and being in us. The Universe of the Universe is an elementary property of belonging to the Universe (an element of the Universe). The element of the universe of the Universe is an elementary property of belonging to the universe of the Universe (an element of the element of the Universe). Elementality is the property of being an element of a certain set (universe) or an indefinite set (Universe). An element is an elementary part of the whole, a discrete of the general and a member (simple) of the complex. Isolation is the property of distinctness from a certain set (universe), i.e., the possession of at least one special property that this universe does not have. Belonging - a property of connectivity, i.e., the possession of a potential or real connection, for example, an element can belong to itself or to another element, as well as to the universe, for example, a class, type, reflection, etc., i.e., an element has, at least one connection or one common (generalized) property with the universe. Universe - a separate set of elements united by the property of belonging (boundary) and an elementary component (belonging) of the Universe.

The model of the Universe can be represented as a certain homogeneous medium, consisting of elements, in a particular case, of points. When we select an element from the environment, we understand that the object representing this element must consist of at least two points that have the simplest structure (dipole), since a point does not have a structure, but only has the location property, if don't count the temporary property and the belonging property. Unlike a categorical point, a real point, in addition, has geometric, kinematic and basic mechanical properties.

Therefore, when a real element is individualized from the environment, it is a physical individual - a set of two or more real points, occupying a certain volume in geometric space at a certain moment or period of time. Under the "real element" we mean a material element that has a real (corpuscular) nature, i.e. a body that occupies a certain geometric space, has a mass of rest and inertia and is fixed by an observer in certain time or (i) having a material (wave, quantum) nature, i.e. not having a fixed body, for example, electromagnetic radiation, etc.

Under the "individual" (functional) in accordance with we will understand the set of properties to which the subject A responds in the environment of choice S, if: 1) this set of properties almost certainly produces a response R from A in S; 2) the elimination of any property from this set reduces the probability R from A to S to almost zero; 3) no other set of properties satisfies conditions 1) and 2). Response, for example, element (X) - an event occurring with X, co-produced by X and another event.

Due to the fact that there is no single approach to the concepts of "attribute, property, object", we will consider them for the purpose of an unambiguous interpretation in this text. Although we think of a property of an element as something that belongs to that element regardless of its observer, however, in a functional sense, by a property is meant how it can affect the observer under certain circumstances. We notice the heaviness of a body if a certain effort is required to lift it, or if, by placing this body on the balance, we see the deflection of the arrow and thereby respond to its weight. Although specific properties are objective in nature, they are at the same time subjective, as they are chosen according to the interests of the researcher. By "property" we mean the potential to produce a response of a certain type in a subject in a given environment of choice. We will assume that a property as a category consists of features, proper properties and patterns, as in the English literature they call certain kind properties. A property is a manifestation of a connection, action or interaction between at least two elements, which is inseparable from the element being studied and which is a potential producer of the response of the studying subject to this property. A feature is a degenerate property or property of a property, and which can produce structural changes in the subject's characteristic response. The property itself is a combination of at least three signs, necessary, sufficient signs and a sign of connectivity in order to produce functional changes in the characteristic response of the subject. Pattern - an indefinite set of features to which the subject responds functionally in the environment of choice, but not always, but only under certain circumstances (conditions). Attribute - a property that does not have a quantitative characteristic, for example, the principle of operation of a device.

Any real object of a material-material nature must have temporal (kinematic), spatial (geometric) and material-material (mechanical) properties, as well as properties represented by their functions, in particular, physical and morphological ones. The physical properties include the temperature of an object, since it can be represented through the root-mean-square velocity of the point particles of the object. Mechanical properties include rest mass and inertia, speed, acceleration of an object. Morphological properties include many physical properties, each of which is the same function of the same temporal, spatial and mechanical properties, the values ​​of which lie in the interval I ± K, where I is the value on the measurement scale, and K is some value greater than zero on this scale. When they say that two bodies have the same temperature, then by this they mean that the values ​​of the temperatures of the bodies fall into the same temperature interval (say, 70 ± 0.5 °).

Under the "object", as a rule, they understand the structural concept of an element, it characterizes its structural properties, i.e., geometric, kinematic, basic mechanical, physical or morphological properties or combinations of these properties. An object is a set of objective and subjective properties of an element of the universe of the Universe, which can be individually described and studied. The object of study is taken from a certain environment (environment, material situation) and therefore must be investigated in a similar environment. The concepts of object and environment are relative. You can consider the environment as an object, and the object as an environment. The environment includes objects that are not included in the object under study, however, changes in the environment can produce changes in the object and vice versa. The object and as a display of an element of the universe of the Universe manifests itself in the form of a connection between at least two properties of an element or elements and which is deliberately chosen and considered by the subject as a set of properties and is a potential producer of the subject's response to this element.

The real object can be decomposed into the following categorical components of the projection:

A degenerate real object that displays itself or a specific real element (pattern);

Actually a real object, which representatively displays a specific set of real elements;

A typical real object that displays a typical representative of an indefinite set of real elements.

The ideal object can be decomposed into the following categorical components of the projection:

A degenerate ideal object that reflects a particular real object;

Actually an ideal object that reflects a set of real objects, or a generalized object or concept;

An absolute ideal object that reflects a real object, but has unreal properties, for example, an absolutely rigid body, or a free object, that is, not connected to anything.

An abstract object or object of thought (noumenon) can be decomposed into the following categorical components of the projection:

A degenerate abstract object that reflects a reflection of a real object, such as a lion symbol;

A proper abstract object that reflects something that does not really exist, such as the goddess Aphrodite or an abstract;

Absolutely abstract object that reflects no one knows what.

The concept of "structure" is closely related to the concept of "object". Structure (structural property) - at least two related properties of an object that ensure its integrity, generality, complexity, and characterize the relative position and connection (structure) of a set of elements (nodes) included in the structure. Structure node (nodal property) - a structure element or at least one connection property, for example, an isolated magnet has lines of force that are closed to itself.

When describing objects, the concept of "composition" is widely used. In our opinion, an object, in addition to structural properties, has domain properties. Domain (domain property) - an element of an object that characterizes the physical, chemical, biological, mental, social, logical properties, etc. properties of the object. Composition (property of composition) - a set of domains (ingredient) included in the object. Ingredients - a standardized set of elements that can be part of an object.

Objects are studied, as a rule, on the basis of the study of individual objects. A separate object is an object that displays a specific element of the universe of the Universe and has the properties of a carrier, object and communicant, as well as having a name and meaning. An object name is an identifier given to an object to distinguish the object from other objects. Object value - at least one value on at least one comparison scale (name, order, measurement).

Objects are often characterized by the presence of multidimensionality, poorly studied and uniqueness, the absence of some factors that determine their state and behavior. Information about such an object is recorded in the form of a set of descriptions of the properties of selected units of observation. Such units can be individual objects, collections of objects, or streams of objects. Usually a single unit of study, regardless of its specific nature, is called an "object".

The properties of objects are studied using measurement procedures, when each object is assigned a certain value, level, gradation, characteristics of an indicator, a parameter expressing a given property, including in the form of a connectivity property, i.e. connections between objects by this property . As a rule, when analyzing the data of any objects, the analysis of the values ​​of indicators that describe the properties of the considered set of objects is carried out. Among the tasks of data analysis presented in the form of three tables (property contingency table, object-property table and object connectivity table (object-object)) there are evaluation of relationships between properties, evaluation of relationships between objects, classification of objects, construction of new aggregated properties (factors) , which more compactly and rationally describe the behavior of the object.

The main table is an object-property table, in which the rows of the table correspond to objects, and the columns to properties. The intersection of the i-row and k-column contains the value of the k-property that it accepts on i-th object. In the general case, the object is given by the number i=1…n, and the property values ​​are x1, x2…xn. Each xk property is materialized in the table through an object. Such a table can be transposed, i.e. you can change rows into columns and vice versa if the table contains values ​​obtained for the same objects at different times.

If we denote the set of objects R, and their number N, then the property X is understood as the mapping X:R>Bx, which assigns to each object i?R its value x(i), which belongs to the set of values ​​Bx of property X.

The set of values ​​Bx can have a different nature. For example, if property values ​​are alphabetic characters, then this property type is called nominal, classification, or naming scale. In this case, each value or name S?Bx corresponds to the group x-1(s)=(i/x(i)=s). If a property specifies some kind of ordering, then it is called rank or ordinal. If the ordering has no direction, then such properties are called similarity properties.

Consideration of only structural and domain properties is not constructive when it is necessary to study objects whose structure and domain composition is unknown. In this regard, N. Wiener proposed to study only the functional properties of an object in the form of a system or a "black box". However, in other cases the structure is known and is continuously rebuilt, which naturally affects the function of the object. In many cases, it is necessary for a person to manage this structure and functions of an object in order not to get a harmful effect on the environment. In this aspect, we consider the so-called problem of causality and the fundamental features various kinds connections. Connection (property of connection) - forces and interactions that determine the existence of at least two elements, i.e. the possibility of the impact of one element on another.

Communication arises due to certain natural or artificial forces of interaction. At the same time, we can single out the connection between two states (temporal properties) of one object in time (cause-effect) or the connection between two objects in geometric space, for example, due to the force of gravitational attraction, or the connection between an element and its universe. AT social systems the connection arises under the action of a certain will of the subjects for a certain purpose and in accordance with a certain logic. The universe-element relationship is potentially reversible, since the element can be a universe. In the geometric space, the interaction is potentially reversible and manifests itself in the form of an influence-phenomenon and a phenomenon-impact connection. The temporal causal relationship, unlike the two described above, is irreversible, despite the fact that the same phenomenon is repeated, it is repeated at different time intervals.

By "function" we will understand the property of producing something, as a property of a functional class, for example, a sundial and a spring clock form a class whose property is the property of producing - an indication of time, although they are structurally different. Function - at least one property that characterizes the impact, the influence of one object on another, including itself, and ensures the appearance of any result (change or lack thereof) or the achievement of any goal. For example, a refrigerator is designed to be transported in time, without a significant change in food, and the function of a car is to transport along roads in geometric space from point A of this environment to point B, and finally, in the space of belonging, one can distinguish converters whose functions include the transformation from one state of objects to another (the juicer produces juice from fruits and vegetables, the electromagnetic circuit converts the energy of an electric source into electromagnetic oscillations and radiation).

Thus, a functional property characterizes the ability to transform one state into another, i.e., establishes a correspondence between two states of one object, or between two objects (before transformation and after transformation). The state, for example, of an element at some point in time is the set of essential properties that the element has at that point in time. An event is a change in at least one structural and functional property over a period of time of a certain duration. The existence of an element of the universe of the Universe implies that this element belongs to a certain universe, in a particular case, for example, that this element is the product of a producer, for example, the same element can be represented by a caterpillar, a chrysalis and a butterfly. Transformation of an object is possible only as long as any of its properties remains unchanged. If all the properties of an object have changed, then there has been a transformation of one object into another. Thus, a function is a property of ongoing processes in an object or processes of interaction outside the object with other objects and the environment.

In our opinion, three categorical projections of functional transformations can be distinguished: 1) degenerate, i.e., transformations or changes that occur in the object itself; 2) the actual transformations that occur on interacting objects; 3) indefinite transformations that can occur under certain circumstances in an object or environment.

A separate type of transformation is reflection. In our opinion, reflection can include: 1) scaling (self-reflection); 2) mirror reflection, in which the left becomes right; 3) deformation, including breaks, subject to the constancy of a certain value characterizing the object of transformation, for example, belonging to a universe or constancy of the area when dividing a flat square into parts.

From a functional point of view, Theseus' ships are the same, since the observer does not care which ship of the two will perform the function vehicle. Since both ships have the same structures, they are also structurally indistinguishable. However, in terms of the composition of the ship, as soon as the first pine board is replaced with oak, the ship will no longer be the same, but different. Even if we replace the board with a pine one, but at the same time each board will have its own number, Theseus' ships will again be different, because their individual properties will differ.

Systems approach includes system cognition, so the concept of "cognition" must be included in system research. The largest contribution to modern theory knowledge was introduced by such scientists as Locke, Hume, Kant, Fichte, Husserl and others. The study of the phenomenon of "cognition" is carried out in the following six areas: philosophical and methodological, formal and logical (logic, cybernetics, artificial intelligence), cognitive (neurophysiological, neuropsychological, cognitive psychology), historical and cultural, ontological and informational. The first four directions are described in, in particular, in the philosophical and methodological direction, two types of work are distinguished. Metaphorical, in which knowledge is revealed through metaphor and techniques that appeal to intuition (Florensky, Heidegger, Deleuze, Foucault and others). The second type of work involves more or less structured conceptual schemes of cognition (Locke, Kant, Husserl, Russell, Maturan). In general, many authors call this direction epistemology. The second direction also claims this term, it widely uses mathematical methods. Despite the large number of formal theories that offer models of cognition, there are still a number of important aspects knowledge for which rigorous formal theories have not yet been constructed.

In philosophy, two approaches to the process of cognition have been formed. The first one is classical, it implies an object-subject scheme (subject>object and subject>subject). The second - includes not passive interaction, but active subject and object, i.e., the cognizer and the cognized mutually influence each other (Florensky, Heidegger, Gadmer). There are many areas of human activity where there are situations of direct or indirect opposition of the object to the cognizing subject (forensic science, military operations, etc.). There are two interconnected mechanisms of cognition - explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious). The explicit mechanism is based on purposeful activity and the possibility of verbalization of this mechanism by means of the language. Hidden cognitive mechanisms, in turn, are divided into acquired and innate, while it is believed that perception (unconscious categorization) occurs at the level of hidden cognitive mechanisms.

W. Neisser proposed a model of the perceptual cycle, which he considers as a universal principle of the interaction of mentality with information received from external environment. A feature of this model is two comparison procedures, the first of which is a comparison of sensory information with information in memory, and the second is a cognitive comparison on a set of concepts. With the help of operations of comparison and cognitive comparison, orientation in the real world and the system of concepts is carried out.

When comparing and choosing, the subject very often uses irrational mechanisms that are not subject to the mechanism of reasoning. Intuition, stereotypes, heuristics (congenital and acquired) lie in many actions, but not logical rules, so we can agree with U. Maturan that in cognition mental model the subject is more important than the information coming from the senses. In cognitive science, the term "cognition" began to be used not only for the process of formation of scientific knowledge, but also for the psychological process of perception, and then as a mechanism for making decisions, interpreting texts, etc.

In philosophy, two types of objects are studied: sensually perceived by a person and objects defined theoretically, which are fundamentally not sensory perceived. Real objects are perceived by people through innate and acquired mechanisms that allow them to distinguish objects. In addition to the selection of objects, the representation of objects in the language, as well as the generalization of objects, is important. A generic object is not a real object and cannot have real properties, so the properties of generic objects can be described using concepts or properties that represent a generic object that can represent a universe, such as a class of objects. Generalized objects include a set of interrelated objects perceived by the subject as a whole and generalized on the basis of conventional mechanisms. For example, a knife is intended for cutting, however, a knife is also an element of the "tool" universe, the properties of which are determined on the basis of an agreement and may not have real implementations. On the other hand, a knife can be classified as a "cold weapon". The categorical approach, as a universal way of describing the world, was proposed by Aristotle, Kant, Pierce and others. S.S. Magazov notes that this approach is also promising at the present time, especially for describing dynamically changing subject areas. In the field of artificial intelligence, this direction is called combinatorial ontology. From the above, the following conclusion can be drawn. Different researchers of the same element of the universe of the Universe can reflect it in different objects and environments, and also consider it a system. For one researcher, the system may be the object itself, for another - only one property of the object, in relation to which the object plays the role of the environment.

The question arises whether the system is only a subjective concept, or is it an objective phenomenon. The subjective choice of a system for research does not deny the objective existence of the systems themselves. Sets of elements and their environments can be considered a system if they are in dynamic "ecological" equilibrium. Elements do not "destroy" the environment, and the environment does not "suppress" the elements that are in the environment. As a rule, the environment is qualitatively different elements from the objects, i.e. the object and its environment are elements of different universes, and when organizing the system, they form a set of at least two elements from different universes. When a system is formed, an element and its environment do not lose their belonging to their universes, and create a new property that is absent from the element and its environment. If the interaction of the element and the environment has reached dynamic equilibrium, then we can assume that the system has been established, if the system is only being created or is already being destroyed, then it is possible to use the concept of "projection of the system", which displays various categorical projections of the concept of "system" in the temporal, geometric or elemental aspect , as well as other aspects. This may explain such a large number of definitions of the concept of "system". System - a set of at least two elements (components of the system) from different universes, in which the elements do not lose their belonging to their universes, and leading to a dynamic "ecological" equilibrium interaction between them, allowing to produce a property that each of the elements does not have separately. In the simplest case, one of these elements is an object, and the second is an environment. If at least one property of an object is examined, for example, a change in the values ​​of any indicator of the object, then the object in relation to this property will be the environment. If at least one interaction of two objects is investigated, then any of the objects can be considered as an environment. If at least one transformation of one object under the influence of the surrounding field (gravitational, electromagnetic or other) is investigated, then the latter can be considered as an environment.

When they say that the periodic table is a system, what is meant is not a vulgar understanding of the picture or the name of this picture, but that it displays, in particular, the totality of chemical elements belonging to different universes, which has led and is leading to the emergence of a variety of chemical compounds and to their new properties. On the other hand, the data embedded in the table, when interacting with a knowledgeable person, form information system, which produces practical actions for chemical analysis and synthesis of the elements of the universe of the Universe.

When we talk about navigation system, then we understand that the geometric grid on the map or the map itself is not the earth's surface, but only a system of two different universes: the earth's surface and the map, with the help of which the route is selected and movement is carried out, allowing to come to a given point on the earth's surface.

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